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问答题 Law is the system of state-enforced rules by which relatively large civil societies and political entities operate. This programmed social functioning is backed up by the exercise of power by a politically sovereign body.   1) What constitutes law among the behavioral codes by which groups or individuals in society live has been defined by legal philosophers in three different ways.Some say that law is the command of a sovereign power to obey a rule, with a penalty for violating it. This view is called legal positivism and has been particularly associated with the 19th-century English philosopher John Austin.   2)On the other side are those who say that law is the application within a state or any other community of rules that are derived from universal principles of morality rooted in turn in revealed religion or reason or a kind of ethical communal sensibility. This view is associated with Thomas Aquinas, in the Middle Ages, who proposed it in the form of natural law theory, and with Lon Fuller and Ronald Dworkin, among recent American legal philosophers.   In the 1960s the widely respected Oxford philosopher H.L.A. Hart tried to find an intermediate position between these two opposing definitions of law according to positivism and natural law.3) He argued that there are “rules of recognition” in which the obligation of rule conformity is brought, about by “social pressure” and customary social behavior rather than by sovereign command and penalty.   Many stipulations, Hart claimed, are recognizable as laws that are pragmatic rules for transactions between private parties and functionally lie outside the sphere of sovereign command and penalty. No sovereign power, no matter how ambitious and aggressive, can enforce more than part of the range of laws we live .by. Even the concept of sovereign power is problematic and vulnerable.   4)Whether Hart really established an intermediate position between the two standard positions in legal philosophy or simply found a new way-subtle, perhaps, or confusing—of associating law with ethics in a context of linguistic anal)sis and pragmatic theory remains a matter of dispute.   Law is divided into two kinds. First, there is criminal law, by which peace and security are maintained, and whose violation results in publicly administered punishment of greater or lesser severity and brings upon the violator the bad name of moral turpitude.5)Second, there is civil law, which regulates relationships between individuals, families, and corporations involving other than criminal activities and provides state-enforced techniques for accumulating and distributing property and other forms of wealth. For example, murder and robbery fall within the scope of criminal law. Contracts, personal liability, and marriage and divorce are within the scope of civil law.

问答题 1) The hierarchy of needs is an idea associated with one man, Abraham Maslow, the most influential humanist ever to have worked in industry.It is a theory about the way in which people are motivated. 2) The theory arose out of a sense that classic economics was not giving managers much help because it failed to take into account the complexity of human motivation. Maslow divided needs into five:   · Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, sex and sleep. Food and drinks manufacturers operate to satisfy needs in this area, as do prostitutes and tobacco growers.   · Safety needs: job security, protection from harm and the avoidance of risk. At this level an individual’s thoughts turn to insurance, burglar alarms and savings deposits.   · Social needs: the affection of family and friendship. These are satisfied by such things as weddings, sophisticated restaurants and telecommunications.   · Esteem needs (also called ego needs), divided into internal needs, such as self-respect and sense of achievement, and external needs, such as status and recognition. Industries focused on this level include the sports industry and activity holidays.   · Self-actualization, famously described by Maslow: “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization.” Self-actualization is different from the other levels of need in at least one important respect: it is never finished, never fully satisfied. 3)It is, as Shakespeare put it, “as if increase of appetite grows by what it feeds on”.   An individual’s position in the hierarchy is constantly shifting and any single act may satisfy needs at different levels. Thus having a drink at a bar with a friend may be satisfying both a thirst and a need for friendship (levels one and three). Single industries can be aimed at satisfying needs at different levels. For example, a hotel may provide food to satisfy level one, a nearby restaurant to satisfy level three, and special weekend tours of interesting sites to satisfy level five.   The hierarchy is not absolute. It is affected by the general environment in which the individual lives. The extent to which social needs are met in the workplace, for instance, varies according to culture. 4) In Japan the corporate organization is an important source of a man’s sense of belonging (although not of a woman’s); in the West it is much less so. One of Maslow’s early disciples was a Californian company called NLS (Non-Linear Systems). In the early 1960s it dismantled its assembly line and replaced it with production teams of six or seven workers in order to increase their motivation. 5) Each team was responsible for the entire production process, and they worked in areas that they decorated according to their own taste. A host of other innovations (such as dispensing with time cards) revolutionized the company. Profits and productivity soared, but Maslow remained skeptical. He worried that his ideas were being too easily “taken as gospel truth, without any real examination of their reliability”. (此文选自The Economist 2008年刊)

问答题 1) Italymay be facing economic depression, but for Siggi, a textile firm near Vicenza in the north-east of the country, 2009 offers the promise of unprecedented growth.Siggi is the biggest producer of grembiuli, or school smocks. Once universal in Italian primary schools, they were becoming as outdated as ink-wells. But in July the education minister, Mariastella Gelmini, backed the reintroduction of grembiuli to combat brand- and class-consciousness among schoolchildren. Siggi’s output this year has almost sold out and its chairman, Gino Marta, says that “next year could see an out-and-out boom.”   The decision on whether pupils should wear the grembiule has been left to head teachers. 2) It does not figure in either of the two education bills that have been introduced by Ms Gelmini. But it has become a symbol of her efforts to shake up Italian education. Her critics argue that these are a vain attempt to turn back the clock; her supporters see them as a necessary first step to a more equitable, efficient system.   3) On October 30th the opposition she has aroused will reach its peak by a one-day teachers’ strike. The union’s main complaint is a program of cuts aimed at saving almost £8 billion ($11 billion). It includes the loss by natural wastage of 87,000 teachers’ jobs over the three academic years to 2012 and the return to a system in which just one teacher is allotted to each year of elementary school.   4) If this is all the reforms do, they could prove as disastrous as union and opposition leaders predict (international studies find primary schools are the only part of Italy’s education that does well). But it is also planned that 30% of the money saved will be reinvested in schools. Ms Gelmini’s supporters hope that she will use it to redress the crippling imbalances in education, which is one of Italy’s biggest structural economic weaknesses.   One problem is “lots of badly paid teachers”, says Roger Abravanel, author of a recent book on meritocracy. “The number of teachers per 100 students is one of the highest in the OECD. “Education, particularly in the south, has often been used by politicians for patronage and job creation. 5) This may explain why, despite studying for longer and in smaller classes, Italian secondary pupils do badly in international comparisons.“The north is around the OECD average, but the south is on a par with Uruguay and Thailand,” says Mr Abravanel. Giacomo Vaciago, an economics professor at the Catholic University of Milan, says that “although for the time being the debate is about cuts, the big problem is quality, which is random.”   Presenting the latest reforms alongside Ms Gelmini, Italy’s prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi, promised that, by 2012, the best teachers would be getting a 7,000 bonus. But Mr Vaciago is unconvinced by the plans. “The present government is making cuts and hoping that the quality comes through as a result. There is no obvious guarantee it will,” he comments. (此文选自The Economist 2008年刊)

问答题 Back in 1979, a fat, unhealthy property developer, Mel Zuckerman, and his exercise-fanatic wife, Enid, opened Canyon Ranch, “America’s first total vacation/fitness resort”, on an old dude ranch in Tucson, Arizona. At the time, their outdoorsy, new age-ish venture seemed highly eccentric. Today Canyon Ranch is arguably the premium health-spa brand of choice for the super-rich. It is growing fast and now operates in several places, including the Queen Mary 2. (1)________________.   “There is a new market category called wellness lifestyle, and in a whole range of industries, if you are not addressing that category you are going to find it increasingly hard to stay in business,” enthuses Kevin Kelly, Canyon Ranch’s president. This broad new category, Mr. Kelly goes on, “consolidates a lot of subcategories” including spas, traditional medicine and alternative medicine, behavioural therapy, spirituality, fitness, nutrition and beauty. (2)________________ “You can no longer satisfy the consumer with just fitness, just medical, just spa,” says Mr. Kelly.   Canyon Ranch’s strategy reflects this belief. (3) ________________ . This year in Miami Beach it will open the first of what it expects to be many upmarket housing estates built around a spa, called Canyon Ranch Living. Together with the Cleveland Clinic, one of the world’s leading private providers of traditional medicine, it is launching an “executive health” product which combines diagnosis, treatment and, above all, prevention. It also has plans to produce food and skin-care products, a range of clothes and healthy-living educational materials.   (4)________________. Mr. Case reckons that one of the roots of today’s health-care crisis, especially in America, is that prevention and care are not suitably joined up. A growing number of employers now promote wellness at work, both to cut costs and to reduce stress and health-related absenteeism, says Jon Denoris of Catalyst Health, a gym business in London. He has been helping the British arm of Harley Davidson, a motorbike-maker, to develop a wellness programme for its workers.   The desire to reduce health-care costs is one force behind the rise of the wellness industry; the other is the growing demand from consumers for things that make them feel healthier. Surveys find that three out of four adult Americans now feel that their lives are “out of balance”, says Mr. Kelly. So there is a huge opportunity to offer them products and services that make them feel more “balanced”. This represents a big change in consumer psychology, claims Mr. Kelly, and one that is likely to deepen over time: market research suggests that 35-year-olds have a much stronger desire to lead healthy lifestyles than 65-year-olds.   (5)________________. Another will be to maintain credibility in (and for) an industry that combines serious science with snake oil. One problem—or is it an opportunity? —in selling wellness products to consumers is that some of the things they demand may be faddish or nonsensical. Easy fixes, such as new-age therapies, may appeal to them more than harder but proven ways to improve health.   One of Canyon Ranch’s answers to this problem has been to hire Richard Carmona, who was America’s surgeon-general until last summer. In that role, he moved prevention and wellness nearer to the centre of public-health policy. The last time a surgeon-general ventured into business, it ended disastrously: during the internet bubble, Everett Koop launched DrKoop.com, a medical-information site that went bust shortly after going public and achieving a market capitalisation of over $1 billion. This time around, the wellness boom seems unlikely to suffer such a nasty turn for the worse.   (此文选自The Economist 2007年刊)   [A] It is expanding a brand built on $1,000-a-night retreats for the rich and famous in several different directions.   [B] Mr. Zuckerman, now a trim and sprightly 78-year-old, remains chairman of the firm.   [C] There is growing evidence that focusing holistically on wellness can reduce health-care costs by emphasizing prevention over treatment.   [D] One difficulty for wellness firms will be acquiring the expertise to operate in several different areas of the market.   [E] It is also one of the leading lights in “wellness”, an increasingly mainstream—and profitable—business.   [F] As more customers demand a holistic approach to feeling well, firms that have hitherto specialised in only one or two of those areas are now facing growing market pressure to broaden their business.   [G] And there is much debate about the health benefits of vitamin supplements, organic food and alternative medicines, let alone different forms of spirituality.

单选题 In paragraphs 4 and 5 the author discusses that______.

A

mastering Russian is the key to success in the Soviet Union.

B

citizens of China should focus on the acquisition of Mandarin.

C

English reaches its present global status as a world language.

D

languages face obvious threat in the shape of a political power.

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